We provide the following table as a summary. This model can be termed a priori thematic saturation, as it points to the idea of pre-determined theoretical categories and leads us away from the inductive logic characteristic of grounded theory. Therefore, it was deemed that the data collection had reached a saturation point. Lipworth W, Taylor N, Braithwaite J. In such studies, analysis tends to focus more on strands within individual accounts rather than on analytical themes; these strands are essentially continuous, whereas themes are essentially recurrent. Epub 2013 Aug 2. on July 11, 2021 Topics: Research Methods In our quantitative-usability classes ( Measuring UX and ROI and Statistics for UX) we often recommend a sizeable number of participants for quantitative studies usually more than 30. Online video clip. 2003: p. 152). Methodological reflections on using pilot data from fracture patients to develop a qualitative study. 1999 Dec;34(5 Pt 2):1153-88. In narrative research, a role for saturation is harder to discern. She links saturation with the idea of replication, in a way that suggests a process of data saturation: However, when the domain has been fully sampled when all data have been collected then replication of data occurs and, with this replication the signal of saturation (Morse 1995: p. 148). the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or in the environment of the participants, depending on the study goals and design. Publisher: Jaroslaw Kriukow; Series: How to Do Your First Research Project; Publication year: 2021; Online pub date: January 04, 2023 Morse (2015: p. 587) takes the view that saturation is present in all qualitative research and as previously noted, it is commonly considered as the gold standard for determining sample size in qualitative research, with little distinction between different types of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. An official website of the United States government. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined that there is a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? FOIA However, whilst considering saturation in incremental terms may increase researchers confidence in making claims to it, we suggest it is only through due consideration of the specific purpose for which saturation is being used, and what one is hoping to saturate, that the uncertainty around the concept can be resolved. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability. (2013: p. 3) look to gain more in-depth understanding beyond the saturation point. How many participants is enough for your qualitative study?In this #ResearchMindset video, I provide THREE factors you should consider when deciding on the number of participants for your qualitative study.Let me know your thoughts!! You must have a valid academic email address to sign up. Foffi G, Pastore A, Piazza F, Temussi PA. Phys Biol. In Handbook of Methods in Cultural . Qualitative researchers often . one that relies wholly or predominantly on applying pre-identified codes, themes or other analytical categories to the data, rather than allowing these to emerge inductively) saturation may refer to the extent to which pre-determined codes or themes are adequately represented in the datarather like the idea of the categories being sufficiently replete with instances, or examples, of data, as suggested in the a priori thematic saturation model outlined above. While the following sections are written in the context of using interviews or focus groups to collect data, the principles described for sample selection, data analysis, and quality assurance are applicable across qualitative approaches. Similarly, Morses view of saturation seems to embody elements of both theoretical and data saturation. Elements to consider include: Sampling approach and participant selection to enable the research question to be addressed appropriately (see Selecting Participants above) and reduce the potential of having a biased sample. Naegeli AN, Flood E, Tucker J, Devlen J, Edson-Heredia E. The patient experience with fatigue and content validity of a measure to assess fatigue severity: qualitative research in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Emergence vs Forcing: Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis. 2011; Jassim and Whitford 2014; Kazley et al. This uncertainty appears to give rise to inconsistencies and contradictions in its use, which we would argue could be resolved, at least in part, if saturation were to be considered as a matter of degree, rather than simply as something either attained or unattained. 2013). Commonly, saturation is referred to as a point (e.g. Find step-by-step guidance to complete your research project. For example, it has been claimed to demonstrate the trustworthiness of coding (Damschroder et al. Data saturation in qualitative research. Their role in medical research. Video, 00:07:43. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529624366. At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are quite similar, but upon careful examination, the differences can be seen. Quite frequently, studies that adopt the criterion of saturation propose at the same time a prior sample size (e.g. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the For example, Hill et al. However, it may also arise from the specific but somewhat uncertain logic that underlies saturation. Corresponding author: Joan Sargeant, PhD, Dalhousie University, 5849 University Avenue, Rm C-106, Halifax - B3H 4H7, Canada. Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Hence, the research procedures for selecting participants, analyzing data, and ensuring research rigor differ from those for quantitative research. "Recruiting the Participants for Your Study: How Many Participants Are Enough in a Qualitative Study?." The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Malterud K, Siersma VD, Guassora AD. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be opportunities for innovation. This perspective seems to be located firmly in the idea of theory development (as other parts of the quoted papers by Morse make clear), though a heavy emphasis is placed at the level of the data and the way in which the data exemplify theory, thereby seeming to evoke both data and theoretical saturation. 6) Dependant Pass (DP) 7) Long Term Visit Pass (LTVP) / Long Term Visit Pass Plus (LTVP+) 8) Work Permit (WP) - must fulfil either point 9, 10 and 11 too to qualify Reeves S, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Whilst the focus remains at the level of analysis, the decision to be made appears to relate to the emergence of new codes or themes, rather than the degree of development of those already identified. Essentially, Constructivist thought focuses on how reality is not a fixed certainty and experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Further, it is crucial that researchers understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. Early Hum Dev. Doing funded qualitative research. A total of 22 (10 females and 12 males) patients, with years old ranging between 33 and 78 years were interviewed. Process for addressing the potential influence the researchers' views and beliefs may have upon the analysis. 6Few authors draw an explicit distinction between data and theoretical saturationamong the exceptions are Bowen (2008), Sandelowski (2008), OReilly and Parker (2013), and Hennink et al. The question will then be how much saturation is enough?, rather than has saturation occurred?7 This is a less straightforward question, but one that much better highlights the fact that this can only be a matter of the analysts decisionsaturation is an ongoing, cumulative judgment that one makes, and perhaps never completes,8 rather than something that can be pinpointed at a specific juncture. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure there are no omissions of part of the target population. In both the deductive and the inductive approach, we can make sense of the role of saturation, however much it differs in each case, because the underlying approach to analysis is essentially thematic, and usually occurs in the context of interview or focus group studies involving a number of informants. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal A desire to identify a specific point in time at which saturation is achieved seems often to give rise to a degree of uncertainty or equivocation. Operationalising data saturation for theory-driven interview studies. Kennedy F, Harcourt D, Rumsey N. The shifting nature of womens experiences and perceptions of ductal carcinoma in situ. What?in what way(s) is saturation defined? To determine when data saturation occurs, analysis ideally occurs concurrently with data collection in an iterative cycle. In: Bryant A, Charmaz K, editors. (2012: p. 2063) talk of how, despite having achieved saturation, increased observation may have increased the degree of immersion in the lives of those on the unit, whilst Naegeli et al. Dey I. Grounding categories. Is 10 respondents enough for qualitative research? (2007: p. 511), who propose the need to fill gaps in the data following saturation. Conducting Qualitative Research: Summary of Key Elements. Julius Sim, Phone: +44 (0)1782 734253, Email: ku.ca.eleek@mis.j. These observations fall under qualitative research. Charmaz K. Grounded theory in the 21st century: applications for advancing social justice studies. Accordingly, researchers who confidently propose saturation as a criterion for sampling at the outset of a study may become less certain as to how it should be operationalized once the study is in progress, and may therefore be reluctant to abide by it. In: Morse JM, editor. in relation to the (non-)emergence of new codes or themesmight suggest it will be achieved at a later stage than in data saturation approaches (notwithstanding the concurrent nature of data-collection and analysis in many qualitative approaches). 3. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social as well as natural sciences. These students know their data (Morse 2015: p. 588). 1Institute for Primary Care and Health Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG UK, 2School of Health Sciences, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, EH21 6UU UK. A proper collection method should be selected which will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because many times, the information sought is not well compartmentalized or obtained. Walker JL. According to Creswell, W. & Creswell, D. (2019), The total number of questions should be between 5 to 10. Dub E, Vivion M, Sauvageau C, Gagneur A, Gagnos R, Guay M. Nature does things well, why should we interfere?: vaccine hesitancy among mothers. National Library of Medicine 27 Jun 2023. Qualitative research can help researchers to access the thoughts and feelings of research participants, which can enable development of an understanding of the meaning that people ascribe to their experiences. Bowen GA. Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: a research note. While some experts in qualitative research avoid the topic of "how many" interviews "are enough," there is indeed variability in what is suggested as a minimum. Please save your results to "My Self-Assessments" in your profile before navigating away from this page. This review aims to synthesize a published set of evaluative criteria for good qualitative research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies. Within qualitative research, two main strategies promote the rigor and quality of the research: ensuring the quality or authenticity of the data and the quality or trustworthiness of the analysis.8,12 These are similar in many ways to ensuring validity and reliability, respectively, in quantitative research. This approach appears to indicate a preoccupation with having enough data to show evidence of saturation, i.e. Accordingly, Marshall and Long (2010) suggest that saturation was not appropriate in their study of maternal coping processes, based on narrative methods. Phenomenology is essentially looking into the lived experiences of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way, from their perspective. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 4 Jan 2023. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529624366. The researcher can use the results of the survey to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Accessed 06/27/2023. A key issue underlying the identification of saturation is the extent to which it is viewed as an event or a process. Accessibility Across academic disciplines, and for about the past five decades, the answer to this question has usually revolved around reaching saturation [1, 5-9].The concept of saturation was first introduced into the field of qualitative research as "theoretical saturation" by Glaser . In: Baker SE, Edwards R, editors. In conclusion, qualitative research methods can be used to better understand the personal experience of dysphagia after ACSS. 8This reflects Glaser and Strausss (1967: p. 40) view of theory generation: one is constantly alert to emergent perspectives that will change and help develop his theory. Results Out of 5994 identified records, 23 articles were included in this review. 2. table1 provides a comparative summary of methodological approaches for quantitative and qualitative research. (2010) refer explicitly to research in which conceptual categories have been pre-established through existing theory, and it is significant in this respect that they link saturation with the notion of content validity. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of the data that have been collected or analysed hitherto, further data collection and/or analysis are unnecessary. As he sees similar instances over and over again, the researcher becomes empirically confident that a category is saturated. In a focus group study of HIV perceptions in Ghana, Ganle (2016) used the notion of saturation to determine when each focus group discussion should terminate. Moreover, conclusions reached at this stage may not be particularly informative as regards subsequent theory developmentpieces of data that appear to be very similar when first considered may be found to exemplify different theoretical constructs on detailed analysis, and correspondingly, data that are empirically dissimilar may turn out to have much in common theoretically. Kuper A, Lingard L, Levinson W. Critically appraising qualitative research. Experiencing liver transplantation: a phenomenological approach. These have been labelled as: theoretical saturation, inductive thematic saturation, a priori thematic saturation, and data saturation. For example, Goulding (2005) suggests that both data and theory should be saturated within grounded theory, and Drisko (1997: p. 192) defines saturation in terms of the comprehensiveness of both the data collection and analysis. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Phenomenology is defined as the study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular. These examples suggest a view that there is something of theoretical importance that is not captured by saturation, though it is unclear from the explanations given as to exactly what this is.9. Trustworthiness of the analysis refers to the quality of data analysis. However, we encourage all employers to notify MOM of any retrenchment exercise. Drisko JW. Accessibility HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help In the professionalism intervention example, as data are analyzed, the researchers may note that only positive experiences and views are being reported. However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore compete against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each, qualitative and quantitative work are not necessarily opposites nor are they incompatible. (2002) employed saturation, which was defined both in terms of the emergence of themes from the analysis and a consensus across views expressed (p. 298), which suggests that, notwithstanding the interpretive phenomenological analysis perspective adopted, saturation was sought more across than within cases. To avoid placing too much administrative burden on small companies (i.e. Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality whereas epistemology is defined as the assumptions about the nature of knowledge that inform the work researchers do. Despite reaching saturation, France et al. Similar points are made by Kennedy et al. In a largely deductive approach (i.e. In interviews, when the researcher begins to hear the same comments again and again, data saturation is being reached It is then time to stop collecting information and to start analysing what has been collected. This should be clearly defined or stated. Accessibility In qualitative research, however, the sample size is not generally predetermined. Symptom control trials in patients with advanced cancer: a qualitative study. Public sector reforms and their impact on the level of corruption: A systematic review. Add this content to your learning management system or webpage by copying the code below into the HTML editor on the page. Generating theory using grounded theory methodology. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered cool, and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke. Sparkes E, Duarte RV, Raphael JH, Denny E, Ashford RL. Tutton E, Seers K, Langstaff D, Westwood M. Staff and patient views of the concept of hope on a stroke unit: a qualitative study. The authors state: Of the 39 participants, six did not complete a second interview because they were unavailable, impaired, or the research team felt the first interview had achieved saturation (p. 2035), suggesting that judgments of saturation were made within each participants account. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.. Please log in from an authenticated institution or log into your member profile to access the email feature. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Eligibility for Singapore PR Under the PTS Scheme. He thus argues that conceptual depth may be a more appropriate termat least from a grounded theory perspectivewhereby the researcher considers whether sufficient depth of understanding has been achieved in relation to emergent theoretical categories. The Professionals, Technical Personnel and Skilled Workers (PTS) scheme is designed to enable those who work in Singapore to apply for PR. The proliferation of research paradigms that situate people with disabilities as arbiters of knowledge production such as inclusive (Johnson & Walmsley, 2003) or participatory research (Chappell, 2000) amplify these marginalised voices. Zhao X, Davey G. Contesting modernity: tobacco use and romanticism among older Dai farmers in Xishuangbanna, China. Accordingly, Zhao and Davey (2015: p. 1178) refer to a form of saturation determined by theoretical completeness and ceased sampling when dimensions and gaps of each category of the grounded theory had been explicated, and Bowen (2008) gives a detailed account of how evidence of saturation emerged at the level of thematic categories and the broader process of theory construction. Guest et al. Birks and Mills 2015; Olshansky 2015).3 These definitions show a change of emphasis, and suggest a second model of saturation. Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. FOIA In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of both why teens start to smoke as well as factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Turner A, Barlow J, Ilbery B. Constructivism contends that individuals views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality. The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to the smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. (2012: p. 859), who talk of looking for novel aspects after the achievement of saturation, and Poletti et al. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. Thus, rather curiously, they propose that it does not hurt to include all interviews from the initial sampling (2017: p. 13). When and how saturation may be judged to have been reached will differ depending on the type of study, as well as assumptions about whether it represents a distinct event or an ongoing process. So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Comment and Share!! When and how? After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data for a better understanding of what the numbers truly mean and their implications. Taking the fourth model of saturation identified earlierthe data saturation approach, as based on the notion of informational redundancyit is clear that saturation can be identified at an early stage in the process, as from this perspective saturation is often seen as separate from, and preceding, formal analysis. For instance, in investigating staff and patient views on a stroke unit, Tutton et al. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Otmar et al. McNulty C, Ricketts EJ, Rugman C, Hogan A, Charlett A, Campbell R. On behalf of the CIRT study group: a qualitative study exploring the acceptability of the McNultyZelen design for randomised controlled trials evaluating educational interventions. If we move outside the grounded theory literature,5 a fourth perspective becomes apparent in which there are references to data saturation, rather than theoretical saturation (e.g. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the In: Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, editors. We question this perspective, and would instead argueas is suggested by the different models of saturation considered in the previous sectionthat saturation has differing relevance, and a different meaning, depending on the role of theory, a viewpoint somewhat supported by other commentators who have questioned its application across the spectrum of qualitative methods (Walker 2012; OReilly and Parker 2013; van Manen et al. Furthermore, if saturation is used in relation to negative case analysis in grounded theory (i.e. In broad terms, saturation is used in qualitative research as a criterion for discontinuing data collection and/or analysis. Using interview and other guides that are not biased or leading, ie, that do not ask questions in a way that may lead the participant to answer in a particular manner. Then . Criterion sampling-selection based on pre-identified factors. In their original treatise on grounded theory, Glaser and Strauss (1967: p. 61) defined saturation in these terms: The criterion for judging when to stop sampling the different groups pertinent to a category is the categorys theoretical saturation. This detail is called thick or rich description and is a strength of qualitative research. Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Kriukow, Jaroslaw. Thus, in this model, the process of saturation is located principally at the level of data collection and is thereby separated from a fuller process of data analysis, and hence from theory. . 4. -, Foley G, Timonen V. Using Grounded Theory Method to Capture and Analyze Health Care Experiences. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. Lingard L, Albert M, Levinson W. Grounded theory, mixed methods, and action research. and transmitted securely. Recruiting the Participants for Your Study: How Many Participants Are Enough in a Qualitative Study? Crider K, Williams J, Qi YP, Gutman J, Yeung L, Mai C, Finkelstain J, Mehta S, Pons-Duran C, Menndez C, Moraleda C, Rogers L, Daniels K, Green P. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. How Many Qualitative Interviews is Enough? However, one could question whether the point at which a participants story is interpreted as being completehaving presumably conveyed everything seen to be relevant to the focus of the studyis, in fact, usefully described by the concept of saturation, given the distance that this moves us away from the operationalization of saturation in broadly thematic approaches. How will we know "good" qualitative research when we see it? (2016) sought saturation during their analysis, but also state (p. 843) that: An a priori sample size of 30 to 40 was selected based on recommendations for qualitative studies of this nature and the anticipated complexity and desired level of depth for our research questions.
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